Educational Articles

PT and INR Explained

What prothrombin time and INR measure, which coagulation factors PT assesses, common causes of prolonged PT/INR, and key interpretation pitfalls.

Coagulation Cascade Explained

Learn the intrinsic, extrinsic and common coagulation pathways, clotting factors, PT and APTT interpretation, haemophilia, and the modern model of haemostasis.

APTT Explained

Learn what APTT measures, the intrinsic and common pathways, causes of prolonged APTT, haemophilia, lupus anticoagulant, heparin monitoring, and mixing studies.

How INR Is Calculated

Step-by-step breakdown of the INR formula — PT ratio, ISI exponent, worked examples from normal to supratherapeutic, and common calculation mistakes.

International Sensitivity Index (ISI) Explained

What the ISI is, how thromboplastin reagents are calibrated against the WHO reference, and why ISI is used as the exponent in the INR formula.

DIC Explained

Learn the pathophysiology of disseminated intravascular coagulation, laboratory findings, D-dimer formation, acute versus chronic DIC, and the ISTH scoring system.

Portal Hypertension Explained

Learn portal hypertension, normal portal venous circulation, how cirrhosis increases portal pressure, and why varices, splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia and ascites develop.

Ascites Explained

Learn how ascites develops, the role of portal hypertension, RAAS activation, diagnostic paracentesis, SAAG interpretation, and major complications.

SAAG Explained

Understand the Serum-Ascites Albumin Gradient formula, why high SAAG means portal hypertension, low SAAG causes, worked examples, and how to combine SAAG with ascitic fluid protein.

Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP) Explained: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, PMN Count and Clinical Approach

Understand SBP clearly: bacterial translocation, PMN cutoff, risk factors, culture-negative neutrocytic ascites, albumin use, diagnosis and complications.

Hepatorenal Syndrome (HRS) Explained: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Clinical Approach

Understand hepatorenal syndrome clearly: why kidneys fail in cirrhosis, HRS diagnostic criteria, pathophysiology, HRS vs ATN, albumin, terlipressin and prognosis.

Variceal Bleeding Explained: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features and Management Principles

Understand variceal bleeding clearly: portal hypertension, HVPG thresholds, collateral formation, red wale marks, variceal rupture, endoscopy, band ligation and TIPS.

TIPS Explained: Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt Made Simple

Understand TIPS clearly: how a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt reduces HVPG and portal pressure, indications, contraindications, benefits, complications and encephalopathy risk.

Portal Hypertensive Gastropathy (PHG) Explained: Pathophysiology, PHG vs GAVE & Treatment

Understand portal hypertensive gastropathy clearly: pathophysiology, mosaic snakeskin appearance, how PHG causes iron deficiency anaemia, PHG vs GAVE, PHG vs gastric varices, and management with beta blockers and TIPS.

Hepatic Hydrothorax Explained: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Treatment & TIPS

Understand hepatic hydrothorax clearly: why ascites causes pleural effusion through diaphragmatic defects, why it is usually right-sided, why it can occur without obvious ascites, and why chest drains are dangerous. Covers diagnosis, TIPS, spontaneous bacterial empyema and prognosis.

Hepatic Encephalopathy Explained: Ammonia, Portosystemic Shunting and Brain Dysfunction Made Simple

Understand hepatic encephalopathy clearly: ammonia interpretation, portosystemic shunting, covert and overt HE, West Haven grades, triggers, lactulose, rifaximin and TIPS.

Child-Pugh Score Explained

The five components of Child-Pugh scoring, worked example, Classes A, B, and C, prognosis, limitations, and comparison with the MELD score.

MELD Score Explained

MELD formula (bilirubin, INR, creatinine), worked example, score interpretation ranges, MELD-Na, transplant prioritisation, and comparison with Child-Pugh.

How to Read a Trauma CT Brain: EDH, SDH, SAH, ICH and Skull Fractures

Systematic approach to trauma head CT — CT density, window settings, haematomas, diffuse axonal injury, skull fractures, mass effect, and how to report findings.